Premium Membership is now 50% off! To sum up, a paradigm consists of at least three elements; ontology, epistemology and methodology. It strives to achieve its emancipatory agendas in principal. This diversity of methodologies stems from the fact that action research utilised qualitative methodologies by dying it with scientific rationality of the quantitative methodology in order determine the causes and eliminate problems through systematic dialogue or discourse. As a research methodology, ethnography gives the researcher the chance to gain deeper insights of the lives of the studied groups or individuals in order to, as Malinowski (1922) in Denscombe (2007) put it, " realize [their] vision of [their] world" (P. 62). Other major philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas, Augustine, Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, Bertrand Russell, and, more recently, R.S. Objectivism is the term generally used to describe the ontological stance of positivism. Third, it does not find currency in pragmatic situations where solutions to social issues and generalisations are desired. In line with the worldview of positivism, survey design entail empiricist verification of theoretical positions by studying a “phenomenon comprehensively and in detail” (Denscombe, 2007, p. 7). Academic Discipline - Academic Discipline research papers discuss this branch of learning that provides a structure for the students’ program of study.. While these Deweyan themes are strongly reminiscent of Rousseau, Dewey placed them in a far more sophisticated—albeit philosophically contentious—context. A third significant party to reliability and validity is triangulation which is the "use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour" (Cohen et al, 2000, p. 112). I will examine three major research paradigms which have dominated the bulk of educational research since the middle of the eighteenth century, namely, the positivist, interpretive and critical theories. Format), Citation-(BibTeX Howe (1988) draws a clear description of the quantitative researcher’s position in designing his/her study as follows: “The quantitative researcher (rightly or wrongly) is willing to assume much, i.e., that all confounding variables have been identified and that the variables of interest have validly measured; qualitative researchers are also much less interested in actors points of view" P. 12. Philosophical perspectives are important because, when made explicit, they reveal the assumptions that researchers are making about their research, leading to choices that are applied to the purpose, design, methodology and methods of the research, as well as to data analysis and interpretation. Finally, Brannen’s contention that research value depends more on pragmatic measures rather than theoretical triumph struck a note. Therefore, positivists claim that the researcher seeks to explain the reality by means of objective observation, verification and measurement (Anderson, 1998; Midraj et al, 2007; Clark, 1998). Finally, a serious assumption about positivism is that by means of precision it implies the establishment of generalizable certainties and ‘objective truths’ (Crotty, 1998). Critical theory came contrary to, and goes beyond positivistic and interpretive theories where their focus is on technical and hermeneutic knowledge respectively (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; crotty, 1998; Cohen et al, 2000). Researchers can mutually attain an understanding of the phenomenon under investigation by interpreting the intentions of those involved (Cohen et al, 2000). Finally, issues of validity and reliability in action research are of high importance. To comply with objectivity, researchers should pay close attention to issues such as assigning two research groups randomly; one is experimental that undergoes stimulus or independent variable whereas the other is the control group that remain intact and do not undergo experimentation. As such, phenomenology considers in multiple realities that can be understood, interpreted and constructed through communicating directly with those participants and others within the society to gain deeper insights into their lived experiences about the phenomena under study.

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